Math Avoidance and Psychological Difficulties in Relation to Number Sense: A Structural Equation Model

Weak number sense persists into tertiary education and is often associated with math avoidance and psychological difficulties that hinder students’ engagement and performance in mathematics. While prior studies have examined constructs such as math anxiety, self-efficacy, and achievement independently, limited research has explored the structural relationships among math avoidance, psychological difficulties, and number sense simultaneously, particularly at the college level. Moreover, the application of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze these constructs as latent variables within a unified framework remains limited, resulting in an incomplete understanding of how affective factors interact with numerical proficiency among students with recent mathematical learning experiences. To address this gap, this study examined the structural relationships among math avoidance, psychological difficulties, and number sense among first- and second-year college students. A correlational quantitative research design was employed, involving 214 participants selected through purposive sampling and enrolled in mathematics-related courses. Data were collected through validated instruments administered via Google Forms. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and SEM were utilized to analyze the data. Results revealed moderate levels of math avoidance, psychological difficulties, and number sense. Math avoidance was significantly and positively related to psychological difficulties and negatively associated with number sense, while psychological difficulties showed no significant relationship with number sense. The SEM results indicated excellent model fit, supporting the proposed framework. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing math avoidance through targeted interventions that enhance confidence, reduce anxiety, and promote active engagement in learning mathematics.